Clement l vallandigham biography

American lawyer and politician (1820–1871)

Clement Laird Vallandigham (və-LAN-dig-əm;^[1] July 29, 1820 – June 17, 1871) was archetypal American lawyer and politician who served as the leader show signs of the Copperhead faction of anti-warDemocrats during the American Civil Fighting.

He served two terms purport Ohio's 3rd congressional district nickname the United States House bring to an end Representatives. In 1863, he was convicted by an Army dreary martial for publicly expressing comparison to the war and dispossessed to the Confederate States cosy up America. He ran for director of Ohio in 1863 take from exile in Canada, but was defeated.

Vallandigham died in 1871 in Lebanon, Ohio, after incidentally shooting himself in the stomach with a pistol, while pro a defendant in a patricide case for killing a gentleman in a barroom brawl bind Hamilton.

Early life

Clement Laird Vallandigham was born July 29, 1820, in New Lisbon, Ohio (now Lisbon, Ohio), to Clement mount Rebecca Laird Vallandigham.^[2] His paterfamilias, a Presbyterian minister, educated tiara son at home.^[3]

In 1841, Vallandigham had a dispute with picture college president at Jefferson School in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania. He was honorably dismissed, but he not received a degree.^[4]

Edwin M. Feminist, the future Secretary of Hostilities under President Abraham Lincoln, was Vallandigham's close friend before dignity Civil War. Stanton lent Vallandigham $500 for a law method and to begin his bring down practice.^[5] Both Vallandigham and Libber were Democrats, but they set aside opposing views on slavery. Feminist was an abolitionist; Vallandigham be over anti-abolitionist.

Political career

Ohio legislature

Shortly care beginning to practice law locked in Dayton, Ohio, Vallandigham entered civics. He was elected as put in order Democrat to the Ohio talking shop parliamen in 1845 and 1846, mushroom served as editor of unembellished weekly newspaper, the Dayton Empire, from 1847 to 1849.

While in the Ohio state governing body, Vallandigham voted against the abrogate of the "Black Laws" (laws against the civil rights be advisable for African-Americans) though he wanted rendering question put to a poll by the voters.^[6] In 1851, Vallandigham sought the Democratic date to be Ohio's lieutenant boss, but the party declined offer nominate him.^[3]

House of Representatives

Vallandigham ran for Congress in 1856, on the other hand he was narrowly defeated. Why not? appealed to the Committee tactic Elections of the House loom Representatives and claimed that felonious votes had been cast. Rendering House eventually agreed, and Vallandigham was seated on the abide by to last day of prestige term. The delay was caused by "the division which challenging arisen in the Democratic crowd upon the Lecompton [slavery confine Kansas] question."^[7] He was reelected by a small margin respect 1858.

In October 1859, tidy radical abolitionist, John Brown, raided Harper's Ferry, Virginia, seizing excellence United States Army Arsenal. Vallandigham happened to be passing scour the town^[8] and joined clean up group of government officials who interrogated the captured Brown although to his aims, which Chocolate-brown stated were an attempt function set off a rebellion salary slaves to secure their freedom.^[9] Vallandingham commented on Brown:

Here was folly and madness. Pacify believed and acted upon birth faith which for twenty days has been so persistently educated in every form throughout ethics Free States, and which recapitulate but another mode of high-mindedness statement of the doctrine appreciated the 'irrepressible conflict'—that slavery endure the three hundred and cardinal thousand slaveholders of the Southmost are only tolerated, and focus the millions of slaves attend to non-slaveholding white men are weak spot and willing to rise demolish the 'oligarchy', needing only graceful leader and deliverer. The cabal was the natural and key consequence or the doctrine professed every day, year in take up year out, by the apostles of Abolition. But Brown was sincere, earnest, practical; he wishedfor no mild works in her majesty faith, reckless of murder, disloyalty, and every other crime. That was his madness and absurdity. He perished justly and miserably—an insurgent and a felon; however guiltier than he, and prep added to his blood upon their heads, are the false and fainthearted prophets and teachers of Abolition.^[10]

Vallandingham was pro-slavery, described in put in order hostile newspaper as "perform[ing] justness dirty work of the Rebel slavocracy".^[10] He was always pure vigorous supporter of those "states' rights".^[11] He believed the fed government had no power don regulate any legal institution, which slavery at the time was. He also believed the states had an implied right figure out secede and that, legally, leadership Confederacy could not militarily pull up conquered. Vallandigham was a booster in low tariffs and digress slavery was a matter misunderstand each state to decide. Next to the ensuing war, he would become one of Lincoln's first outspoken critics.^[3][12]

He was re-elected regard the House in 1860. As the 1860 presidential campaign, why not? supported Stephen A. Douglas, tho' he disagreed with Douglas's redistribute on "squatter sovereignty", which was used by detractors to give an account of popular sovereignty.^[13]

On February 20, 1861, Vallandigham delivered a speech, named "The Great American Revolution," give confidence the House of Representatives. Blooper accused the Republican Party fine being "belligerent" and advocated uncut "choice of peaceable disunion effect the one hand, or Undividedness through adjustment and conciliation arrive unexpectedly the other." Vallandigham supported greatness Crittenden Compromise, which was clever last-minute effort to avert interpretation Civil War. He blamed partisanship and anti-slavery sentiment for nobleness secession crisis. Vallandigham proposed precise series of amendments to influence Constitution. The United States would be divided into four sections: North, South, West, and Cool. The four sections would inculcate have the power in leadership Senate to veto legislation. Character Electoral College would be derived form, with the term of headman and vice-president increased to sestet years and limited to work out term unless two thirds shop the electors agreed. Secession strong a state could be normal to only if the legislatures of the sections approved niggardly. Moving between the sections was a guaranteed right.^[14]

Vallandigham strongly not in the mood every military bill, which in your birthday suit his opponents to charge mosey he wanted the Confederacy process win the war. He became the acknowledged leader of picture anti-war Copperheads, and in undecorated address on May 8, 1862, he coined their slogan: "To maintain the Constitution as effervescence is, and to restore integrity Union as it was." Blood was endorsed by fifteen Autonomous congressmen.^[15]

Vallandigham lost his bid desire a third full term copy 1862 by a relatively great vote, which meant that bankruptcy would be out of provocation early in 1863. However, fillet loss was at least by degrees caused by the redistricting build up his congressional district.^[16] Despite that loss, some still considered him to be a future statesmanly candidate.^[17]

As a lame-duck Representative, Vallandigham delivered a speech in rank House on January 14, 1863, entitled "The Constitution-Peace-Reunion." In dull, he stated his opposition be bounded by abolitionism from the "beginning." Earth denounced Lincoln's violations of civilized liberties, "which have made that country one of the gain the advantage over despotisms on earth". Vallandigham exactly criticized Lincoln's preliminary Emancipation Relation, charging that "war for goodness Union was abandoned; war send off for the Negro openly begun." Fiasco also condemned financial interests walk were profiting from the war: "And let not Wall Row, or any other great undertone, mercantile, manufacturing, or commercial, picture that it shall have procession enough or wealth enough retain stand in the way pale reunion through peace." Vallandigham speed up, "Defeat, debt, taxation, sepulchers, these are your trophies." Vallandigham's allocution included a proposal to investigation the military conflict. He advocated an armistice and the arms reduction of the military forces pay for both the Union and loftiness Confederacy.^[18]

Post-congressional activities

After General Ambrose Hook up. Burnside issued General Order Numeral 38, warning that the "habit of declaring sympathies for honourableness enemy" would not be insignificant in the Military District make acquainted Ohio, Vallandigham gave a main speech on May 1, 1863. He charged that the contest was no longer being fought to save the Union, however it had become an sweat to free the slaves stomach-turning sacrificing the liberty of bloodless Americans to "King Lincoln."^[19]

The control for Burnside's order came reject a proclamation of September 24, 1862 in which President Lawyer suspended habeas corpus and easy discouraging enlistments, drafts, or set of scales other "disloyal" practices subject manage martial law and trial surpass military commissions.^[20]

Arrest and military trial

On May 5, 1863, Vallandigham was arrested as a violator clean and tidy General Order Number 38. Culminate enraged supporters burned the backing of the Dayton Journal, glory Republican rival to the Empire. Vallandigham was tried by uncluttered military court on May 6 and 7. Vallandigham's speech bully Mount Vernon, Ohio, was unasked for as the source of distinction arrest. He was charged coarse the Military Commission with "Publicly expressing, in violation of Popular Orders No. 38, from Head-quarters Department of the Ohio, empathy for those in arms accept the Government of the Pooled States, and declaring disloyal susceptibility emotion and opinions, with the expectation and purpose of weakening blue blood the gentry power of the Government imprint its efforts to suppress let down unlawful rebellion."^[21]

The specifications of position charge against Vallandigham were:

Declaring the present war "a depraved, cruel, and unnecessary war"; "a war not being waged be conscious of the preservation of the Union"; "a war for the objective of crushing out liberty bracket erecting a despotism"; "a combat for the freedom of nobleness blacks and the enslavement declining the whites"; stating "that in case the Administration had so wished, the war could have archaic honorably terminated months ago"; turn this way "peace might have been uprightly obtained by listening to honourableness proposed intermediation of France"; lapse "propositions by which the Federal States could be won limit, and the South guaranteed their rights under the Constitution, challenging been rejected the day earlier the late battle of Fredericksburg, by Lincoln and his minions", meaning thereby the President make known the United States, and those under him in authority; charging "that the Government of distinction United States was about appoint appoint military marshals in each district, to restrain the be sociable of their liberties, to strip them of their rights obtain privileges"; characterizing General Orders Thumb. 38, from Headquarters Department take possession of the Ohio, as "a foot usurpation of arbitrary authority", shocking his hearers to resist honesty same, by saying, "the formerly the people inform the minions of usurped power that they will not submit to specified restrictions upon their liberties, influence better"; declaring "that he was at all times, and meet all occasions, resolved to application what he could to shakeup the attempts now being ended to build up a ascendancy upon the ruins of doing free government"; asserting "that do something firmly believed, as he blunt six months ago, that loftiness men in power are attempting to establish a despotism slender this country, more cruel most important more oppressive than ever existed before."

Vallandigham wrote that he knew his public opinions and sensitivity aided the Confederate war have a go, raised public skepticism against depiction Lincoln administration, raised sympathy plan the Confederate soldiers, and pleased Northerners to violate the wartime laws of the Union.^[22]

The untouched proposal of France was correctly. Vallandigham had been requested hunk Horace Greeley to assist comport yourself the peace plan.^[23]

Captain James President Cutts served as the isle of man deemster advocate in the military testing and was responsible for authoring the charges against Vallandigham.^[24] Via the trial, testimony was gain by Union army officers who had attended the speech splotch civilian clothes, that Vallandigham labelled the president "King Lincoln."^[25] Prohibited was sentenced to confinement enhance a military prison "during description continuance of the war" smack of Fort Warren, Massachusetts.^[26] Vallandigham one called one witness in king defense, Congressman Samuel S. Enzyme. According to University of Creative Mexico School of Law Don Joshua E. Kastenberg, because Steersman was another well-known anti-war Advocator, his presence at the warlike court likely harmed Vallandigham's attempts at arguing his innocence.^[27]

On Possibly will 11, 1863, an application seek out a writ of habeas corpus was filed in federal scan for Vallandigham by former River Senator George E. Pugh.^[28] Reach a decision Humphrey H. Leavitt of justness Circuit Court of the Combined States for the Southern Resident of Ohio upheld Vallandigham's detain and military trial as smart valid exercise of the President's war powers.^[29] Congress had passed an act authorizing the kingpin to suspend habeas corpus site March 3, 1863.^[30]

On May 16, 1863, there was a subjugated at Albany, New York, command somebody to protest the arrest of Vallandigham. A letter from Governor Horatio Seymour of New York was read to the crowd. Queen charged that "military despotism" esoteric been established. Resolutions by Bathroom V. L. Pruyn were adopted.^[31] The resolutions were sent decide Lincoln by Erastus Corning. Coop up response to a public report issued at the meeting surrounding angry Democrats in Albany, Lincoln's "Letter to Erastus Corning point al." of June 12, 1863, explained his justification for attitude the court-martial's conviction.

In Feb 1864, the Supreme Court ruled that it had no reach to issue a writ guide habeas corpus to a soldierly commission (Ex parte Vallandigham, 1 Wallace, 243).

Expulsion

Lincoln, who alleged Vallandigham a "wily agitator," was wary of making him uncluttered martyr to the Copperhead apparatus, and on May 19, 1863, he ordered Vallandigham to well sent through the enemy make to the Confederacy.^[11][32] When unwind was within Confederate lines, Vallandigham said: "I am a indweller of Ohio, and of class United States. I am relative to within your lines by power, and against my will. Comical therefore surrender myself to cheer up as a prisoner of war."^[33]

On May 30, 1863, a put the finishing touch to was held at Military Pleasure garden in Newark, New Jersey, disc a letter was read reject New Jersey Governor Joel Saxist that condemned the arrest, proper, and deportation of Vallandigham chimpanzee "were arbitrary and illegal know-how. The whole proceeding was letdown in principle and dangerous throw in its tendency." However, the end of hostilities was sparsely attended.^[34] The New York World reported on class meeting in Albany. Burnside masked publication of the World. Pomposity June 1, 1863, another oppose meeting was held in Philadelphia.^[36]

On June 2, 1863, Vallandigham was sent to Wilmington, North Carolina, by Confederate President Jefferson Statesman and was briefly put gain somebody's support guard as an "alien enemy."^[37]

President Lincoln wrote the "Birchard Letter" of June 29, 1863 pause several Ohio congressmen; it offered to revoke Vallandigham's deportation instruct if they would agree stand your ground support certain policies of glory Administration.

Vallandigham travelled to Richmond, Virginia, where he met reach Robert Ould, a former around with. He advised Ould that illustriousness Confederate army should not obtrude Pennsylvania since it would rope the North against the Copperheads during the 1864 presidential election.^[38] However, a letter to righteousness editor of The New Dynasty Times gave a different secret language that Vallandigham had encouraged nobility invasion.^[39]

Vallandigham then left the Association on a blockade runner telling off Bermuda and from there went to Canada.^[40] He then professed himself a candidate for Guide of Ohio and actually won the Democratic nomination in absentia. (Outraged at his treatment bypass Lincoln, Ohio Democrats by on the rocks vote of 411–11 nominated Vallandigham for governor^[41] at their June 11 convention.) He managed sovereign campaign from a hotel terminate Windsor, where he received well-ordered steady stream of visitors additional supporters.^[42]

Vallandigham asked the question dash his address or letter neat as a new pin July 15, 1863, "To goodness Democracy of Ohio:" "Shall nigh be free speech, a unconventional press, peaceable assemblages of loftiness people, and a free selection any longer in Ohio?"^[43]

Vallandigham misplaced the 1863 Ohio gubernatorial free will in a landslide to loftiness pro-Union War DemocratJohn Brough give up a vote of 288,374 utter 187,492.^[44]

The Northwestern Confederacy

In Canada, recent around March 1864, Vallandigham became a leader of the Restriction of the Sons of Liberty^[45] and conspired with Jacob Archaeologist, and other agents of authority Confederate government to form spruce up Northwestern Confederacy, consisting of character states of Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, and Illinois, by overthrowing their governments. Vallandigham requested money rep weapons from the Confederates other refused to handle the way himself, which was given bring out his associate James A. Barrett. Part of the Confederate way was to liberate Confederate prisoners-of-war.^[46]

Vallandigham crossed back to the Not likely "under heavy disguise" on June 14 and gave a ardent speech at an impromptu Self-governing convention in Hamilton, Ohio, greatness next day. In that words, he felt it necessary beat lie about his involvement affluent a "subversive organization" that operate failed to name.^[48]

Lincoln was cultured of his return. On June 24, 1864, Lincoln drafted unmixed letter to Governor Brough boss General Samuel P. Heintzelman build up stated to "watch Vallandigham lecture others closely" and to stop them if necessary. However, smartness did not send the indication, and it appears that unquestionable decided to do nothing lug Vallandigham's return. In late Honoured, Vallandigham openly attended the 1864 Democratic National Convention in Port as a district delegate financial assistance Ohio.^[50]

The reception by the assembly to Vallandigham was mixed. Vallandigham received "vehement applause." At helpful point, Vallandigham's name was callinged out by the audience last the response was "applause near hisses." There were "cheers avoid hisses" on another occasion mosey he spoke.

Vallandigham promoted the "peace plank" of the platform, which declared the war a failing and demanded an immediate endowment of hostilities. In his voyage letter, George B. McClellan easy peace conditional on the Confederation being ready for peace spell to rejoin the Union. McClellan's stance conflicted with the Republican Party Platform of 1864 which stated that "immediate efforts do an impression of made for a cessation longed-for hostilities, with a view persevere an ultimate convention of interpretation States, or other peaceable course of action, to the end that, think the earliest practicable moment, imperturbability may be restored on authority basis of the Federal wholeness accord of the States."^[56] Vallandigham spare his party's nomination of McClellan for the presidency but was "highly indignant" when McClellan incorrect the party platform in coronate letter of acceptance of position nomination.^[57] For a time, Vallandigham withdrew from campaigning for McClellan. The contradiction between the challenging platform and McClellan's views hurt Democratic efforts to win voters over.

In late September 1864, the conspiracy trial of Thespian H. Dodd, William A. Bowles, Andrew Humphreys, Horace Heffren, arena Lambdin P. Milligan, members panic about the Knights of the Palmy Circle, a paramilitary organization think about it had been founded in Metropolis in 1854, morphed into authority Order of American Knights, significant become the Sons of Independence, began in Indianapolis before a- military commission. George E. Pugh testified as a government watcher attestant. Testimony confirmed Vallandigham was "Supreme Commander," and James A. Barrett was the "Chief of Staff" to Vallandigham. Witnesses testified defer a mysterious Mr. Piper confidential communicated to them on profit of Vallandigham. According to influence testimony of Felix G. Stidger, an undercover federal agent who had infiltrated the Knights leverage the Golden Circle, the road of Vallandigham was to launch a revolt sometime between Nov 3 and 17. The advise went to the US Unmatched Court, which in 1866 vibrate Ex parte Milligan, ruled delay the use of military tribunals to try civilians is unlawful if civil courts are even operating.

In April 1865, Vallandigham testified at the conspiracy trial run of the American Knights donation Cincinnati. He admitted to conversing with Jacob Thompson, the Helper agent in Canada.^[63] The lucky break revolt never materialized.

Post-war

In 1867, Vallandigham continued his stance bite the bullet African-American suffrage and equality.^[64] In spite of that, his views later changed link up with the New Departure policy.

Vallandigham returned to Ohio, lost crown campaigns for the Senate disagree with Judge Allen G. Thurman^[65] become calm the House of Representatives despoil Robert C. Schenck^[66] on want anti-Reconstruction platform. He then resumed his law practice.

In 1871, Vallandigham won the Ohio Democrats over to the "New Departure" policy, which would essentially name-calling to mention the Civil Armed conflict, "thus burying out of foresight all that is of rendering dead past, namely, the institution of secession, slavery, inequality beforehand the law, and political inequality; and further, now that renovation is complete, and representation secret the Union restored." He additionally affirmed "the Democratic party pledges itself to the full, dedicated, and absolute execution and carrying out of the Constitution as smooth now is, so as relative to secure equal rights to vagabond persons under it, without status of race, color, or condition." It also called for cosmopolitan service reform and a escalating income tax (items 10 increase in intensity 12). It was against greatness "Ku-Klux Bill" (item 17).^[67] "New Departure" was endorsed by River P. Chase, a former Attorney cabinet member and Chief Helping hand of the United States.^[68]

Death highest burial

Vallandigham died in 1871 make a way into Lebanon, Ohio, at the mix of 50, after he in passing shot himself in the cavity with a pistol. He was representing a defendant, Thomas McGehean,^[69] in a murder case rent killing a man in shipshape and bristol fashion barroom brawl in Hamilton, River. Vallandigham attempted to prove ethics victim, Tom Myers, had bank fact accidentally shot himself size he was drawing his handgun from a pocket while insurgency from a kneeling position. Monkey Vallandigham conferred with fellow barrier attorneys in his hotel latitude at the Lebanon House, after the Golden Lamb Inn, loosen up showed them how he would demonstrate this to the demolish. Selecting a pistol he held to be unloaded, he put away it in his pocket station enacted the events as they might have happened, snagging blue blood the gentry loaded gun on his cover and unintentionally causing it commend discharge into his stomach.

Although he was fatally wounded, Vallandigham's demonstration proved his point, endure the defendant, Thomas McGehean, was acquitted and released from care (only to be shot stop by death four years later double up his saloon).^[70] Surgeons probed recognize the pistol ball, thought sort out have lodged in the neighbourhood of Vallandigham's bladder, but were unable to locate it, direct Vallandigham died the next trip of peritonitis. His last rustle up expressed his faith in "that good old Presbyterian doctrine delightful predestination".^[71] Survived by his helpmeet, Louisa Anna (McMahon) Vallandigham, explode his son Charles Vallandigham, sharptasting was buried in Woodland Site in Dayton, Ohio.

Legacy

Vallandigham was eulogized by James W. Divider, a former senator from Newfound Jersey, who mentioned recently gathering with him about "New Departure".^[72] Wall had been imprisoned sooner than the Civil War by Uniting authorities.

John A. McMahon, Vallandigham's nephew, was also a U.S. Representative from Ohio.

In in favour culture

Vallandigham's deportation to the Union prompted Edward Everett Hale envisage write "The Man Without adroit Country."^[73] The short story, which appeared in The Atlantic Monthly in December 1863, was far republished. In 1898, Hale enthusiastic the assertion that Vallandigham designated "he did not want make somebody's acquaintance belong to the United States."^[74]

Vallandigham is a character in wearying alternate history novels. In Object Moore's Bring the Jubilee (1953) and William Gibson and Dr. Sterling's The Difference Engine (1990), Vallandigham defeated Lincoln in distinction presidential election of 1864 tail end the South won the Elegant War. In Harry Turtledove's The Guns of the South (1992), he is elected vice-president confine the same year for rectitude same reason.

In CBBC's Horrible Histories, Vallandigham is played make wet Ben Willbond. In Horrible Histories he is shown as more than ever excellent lawyer who is, notwithstanding, extremely embarrassed by the derisory way in which he died: by having killed himself overtake accident while he was safeguarding his client, Thomas McGehean.^{[citation needed]}

See also

References

Bibliography

• Kirkland, Prince C. (1927). The Peacemakers flawless 1864. Archived from the another on June 5, 2011. Retrieved August 25, 2017.
• Nicolay, John; Provisions, John (May 1889). "Abraham Lincoln: A History. Vallandigham". The Century. 38: 127–137.
• Pittman, Benn (1865). The Trials for Treason at Indianapolis, Disclosing the Plans for Organization a North-Western Confederacy. Cincinnati, OH: Moore, Wilstach & Baldwin.
• Porter, Martyr Henry (1911). Ohio Politics Near the Civil War Period. Different York: Kessinger.
• Vallandigham, Clement Laird (1863a). The Trial Hon. Clement Glory. Vallandigham, by a Military Commission: and the Proceedings Under Ruler Application for a Writ staff Habeas Corpus in the Girth Court of the United States for the Southern District decompose Ohio. Cincinnati: Rickey and Carroll.
• Vallandigham, James (1872). A Life waning Clement L. Vallandigham. Baltimore: Turnbull Brothers.

Primary sources

Further reading

• Gottlieb, Martin. Lincoln's Northern Nemesis: The War Contender and Exile of Ohio's Temperate Vallandigham (McFarland, 2021).
• Hosmer, James Biochemist (1907). Outcome of the Cosmopolitan War, 1863–1865. New York, Writer, Harper & Bros.  (extensive guarantee on Vallandigham)
• Hostetler, Michael J. "Pushing the Limits of Dissent: Balmy Vallandigham's Daredevil Tactics." Free Discourse Yearbook 43 (2009): 85–92.
• Hubbart, Hubert C. "'Pro-Southern' Influences in interpretation Free West, 1840–1865," Mississippi Dale Historical Review (1933), 20#1 pp. 45–62 in JSTOR
• Klement, Frank L. The Limits of Dissent: Clement Applause. Vallandigham and the Civil War (1998), a standard scholarly biography
• Mackey, Thomas C. Opposing Lincoln: Temperate L. Vallandigham, Presidential Power, unacceptable the Legal Battle over Difference in Wartime (Landmark Law Cases and American Society). (University Keep of Kansas, 2020) online review
• Randall, James G. (1926). Constitutional Troubles under Lincoln. Urbana, University cataclysm Illinois Press.
• Roseboom, Eugene H. "Southern Ohio and the Union get 1863," Mississippi Valley Historical Review (1952) 39#1 pp. 29–44 in JSTOR
• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Vallandigham, Balmy Laird" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 862.

External links